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\title{EXAMPLE OF A PAPER PRESENTED AT THE VULCANO WORKSHOP 2004: FRONTIER OBJECTS IN ASTROPHYSICS AND PARTICLE PHYSICS}

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\author{FRANCO GIOVANNELLI}

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\organization{Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica Cosmica,
CNR\\ Area di Ricerca di Roma-2, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100
- I 00133, Roma, Italy}

\maketitle


\begin{abstract}
In this paper I would like to discuss several hot points of today
astroparticle physics.

\end{abstract}
\vspace{1.0cm}

\section{Introduction}
In the last few decades, cosmic-ray physics and high energy
astrophysics strongly developed thanks to ground- and space-based
experiments. Higher and higher capabilities in reproducing extreme
conditions in which the nature demonstrates, and better and better
sensitivities of the detectors used have been the key of such a
development.

\section{Cosmology}

Modern physical cosmology has now converged on the Big Bang
framework. Such a  framework is supported by four principal
pillars:

\begin{itemize}
  \item Hubble expansion
  \item microwave background
  \item light element abundances
  \item inflation
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Hubble Expansion}

The absolute magnitude M of the galaxies can be determined through
the measurement of the apparent magnitude m and redshift z.


\subsubsection{Title of the Subsubsection}

Please write the text of the subsubsection.



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{figure}[h!]  %%% FIGURE 1 %%%
\epsfysize=5cm \hspace{4.0cm} \epsfbox{CMBR_T_vs_z.PS}
\vspace{0.3cm} \caption[h]{CMBR temperature versus redshift
(Srianand, Petitjean \& Ledoux, 2000). {\bf We want the Figure 1
just here, then it is necessary to use the command [h!].}}
\end{figure}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%


\section{Active Galactic Nuclei and Galactic Collapsed Objects:
Unified Schemes}

The main idea in order to explain the emission
from extragalactic X-ray emitters, now very popular, was suggested
many years ago (Giovannelli \& Polcaro, 1986): the {\it engine}
producing high energy radiation is of the same kind for all
extragalactic emitters. Mass and mass accretion rates are the
unique parameters differentiating extragalactic emitters,
containing central black holes, by the galactic black holes.


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{figure}[t!]  %%% FIGURE 2 %%%
\epsfysize=10cm \hspace{1.0cm}
\epsfbox{COLLIDING-GALAXIES_CHANDRA.ps} \vspace{0.3cm}
\caption[h]{Image of the Antennae colliding galaxies obtained with
the Chandra observatory. It shows superbubbles produced by the
combined effect of thousands of supernovae, as well as dozens of
bright point-like sources produced by neutron stars and black
holes (NASA/SAO/Fabbiano, Zezas \& Murray, 2001). {\bf We want the
Figure 2 at the top of page, then it is necessary to use the
command [t!].} }
\end{figure}
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More detailed unified schemes have been produced. For instance, in
Vagnetti, Cavaliere \& Giallongo (1991) and Vagnetti \& Spera
(1994) and in the references therein, the evolutionary unified
scheme is based on the changing balance among three optical
luminosities, namely:
\begin{itemize}
  \item nuclear isotropic component;
  \item relativistic beam component;
  \item host galaxy component.
\end{itemize}
The intrinsic jet luminosity is assumed to have the same cosmic
evolution as the nuclear isotropic component. The bulk Lorentz
factor of the beam is able to account for the slower evolution of
flat-spectrum QSOs. The comparison of the total nuclear luminosity
($L_{NUC} = L_{IS} + L_{BEAM}$) with the non-evolutionary galactic
luminosity, ($L_{HG}$), predicts the appearance of a source as a
radio galaxy if $L_{HG} > L_{NUC}$.

\begin{figure}[t!]
      \vspace{10truecm}
\special{psfile=M51_LARGE_SCALE_B.ps  voffset=140 hoffset=0
hscale=30.0 vscale=18.7 angle=0}
\special{psfile=M83_LARGE_SCALE_B.ps voffset=141 hoffset=220
hscale=18.0 vscale=18.5 angle=0}
\special{psfile=NGC4631_B_2-8cm.ps voffset=-8 hoffset=35
hscale=18.3 vscale=20 angle=0} \special{psfile=M82_B_VLA.ps
voffset=0 hoffset=220 hscale=18 vscale=18.2 angle=0}
      \caption[h]{The magnetic field structures of different
galaxies. Clockwise from the left upper panel: orientation of the
large-scale magnetic fields in M51, orientation of the large-scale
magnetic fields in M83 (Neininger et al., 1991), magnetic fields
in NGC 4631 from 2.8 cm observations (Wielebinski \& Krause,
1993), and magnetic fields in M82 from VLA observations (Reuter et
al., 1993).

{\bf The use of the commands for this composed figures is rather
simple. It is necessary to vary "voffset" and "hoffset" in order
to move each figure in vertical and in horizontal, respectively.
It is necessary to vary "hscale" and "vscale" in order to resize
each figure in horizontal and in vertical, respectively. With the
command "angle" it is possible to rotate a figure.}}
     \label{fig1}
    \end{figure}




Table 1 shows 28 GRBs detected by different satellites, for which
the redshifts of the {\it host galaxies} have been determined
(Djorgovski et al., 2001; Greiner, 2002).

\begin{table}[t!]
\begin{center}
\caption{Gamma-ray bursts, detected by different satellites and
the redshifts of the host galaxies (Djorgovski et al., 2001;
Greiner, 2002)}
\bigskip
\begin{tabular}{lll}
\hline
GRB Name & Host-Galaxy Redshift & Localization Source\\
\hline
970228   & $0.625 \pm 0.002$   & BeppoSAX\\
970508   &  0.835              & BeppoSAX\\
970828   &  0.9579             & RXTE/ASM\\
971214   &  3.418              & BeppoSAX\\
980326   &  1 ?                & BeppoSAX\\
980329   &  < 3.9              & BeppoSAX\\
980425   &  0.0085             & BeppoSAX\\
980613   & $1.0964 \pm 0.0003$ & BeppoSAX\\
980703   & $0.9660 \pm 0.0002$ & RXTE/ASM\\
990123   & $1.6004 \pm 0.0005$ & BeppoSAX\\
990506   &  1.3                & BATSE/PCA\\
990510   & $1.619 \pm 0.002$   & BeppoSAX\\
990705   &  0.86               & BeppoSAX\\
990712   & $0.430 \pm 0.005$   & BeppoSAX\\
991208   & $0.7055 \pm 0.0005$ & IPN\\
991216   &  1.020              & RXTE/PCA\\
000131   &  4.50               & Uly/KO/NE (IPN)\\
000214   &  0.37-0.47          & BeppoSAX\\
000301C  & $2.0335 \pm 0.0003$ & RXTE/ASM+IPN\\
000418   & $1.1185 \pm 0.0007$ & IPN\\
000911   &  1.0585             & IPN\\
000926   &  2.0369             & Uly/KO/NE (IPN)\\
001109   &  0.37               & BeppoSAX\\
010222   &  1.477              & BeppoSAX\\
010921   &  0.45               & HETE/Uly/BeppoSAX\\
011121   &  0.36               & BeppoSAX\\
011211   &  2.14               & BeppoSAX\\
020405   &  0.69               & Uly/MO/BeppoSAX\\
%020813   &  1.25               & HETE\\
%021004   &  2.3                & HETE\\
%021211   &  1.01               & HETE\\
%030226   &  1.98               & HETE\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

\section{X-Ray Binaries}


X-ray binary systems are a cauldron of physical processes and
their multi-frequency studies improved a lot the knowledge of the
accreting processes onto collapsed objects.

\section{Radio Pulsars, Millisecond Pulsars}

The observable quantities are the rotational period $P$ and the
spin-down rate $\dot{P}$. Then substituting these quantities to
$\Omega$ and $\dot{\Omega}$, it is possible to express the pulsar
magnetic field in terms of the observable quantities, by using
typical values for the moment of inertia and the radius of the
neutron star (Zi{\'o}{\l}kowski, 1997):
$$B = 3.2 \times 10^{19}(P\dot{P})^{1/2}G\,. \hspace{2.0cm} (8.3)$$

\noindent The rate of energy loss is (Thompson, 2000):
$$\dot{E} \simeq 4 \times 10^{46}\dot{P}P^{-3}\, erg\, s^{-1}\,. \hspace{2.0cm} (8.4)$$

\noindent The line open field line voltage is (Thompson, 2000):
$$V \simeq 4 \times 10^{20}\dot{P}^{1/2}P^{-3/2}\, V \simeq
\dot{E}^{1/2}\,. \hspace{2.0cm} (8.5)$$


%%%%%% Table 2 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{table}[h!]
\begin{center}
\caption{Black holes in the Milky Way Galaxy (Blandford \&
Gehrels, 1999; Filippenko et al., 1999; Casares, 2001) }
\bigskip
\begin{tabular}{llllll}
\hline
Source Name  & Identification &Companion&f(M)&$M_{Opt}$  & $M_{BH}$ \\
             &                &         &   &($M_\odot$)&($M_\odot$)\\
\hline
Cygnus X-1   & HD226868  & O9.7 Iab & 0.24   & 24-42        & 11-21\\
GS2023+338   & V404 Cyg  & K0 IV    & 6.26   & $\sim 0.6$   & 10-15\\
GS2000+25    & QZ Vul    & K3-K5 V  & 4.97   & $\sim 0.7$   &  6-14\\
H1705-250    & V2107 Oph & K3       & 4.86   & 0.3-0.6      & 6.4-6.9\\
GROJ1655-40  & N Sco 1994& F6 IV    & 3.24   & 2.34         & 7.02\\
A0620-00     & V616 Mon  & K3-K5 V  & 3.18   & 0.2-0.7      &  5-10\\
GS1124-68    & GU Mus    & K3-K4 V  & 3.10   & 0.5-0.8      & 4.2-6.5\\
GROJ0422+32  & V518 Per  & M2 V$\pm2$ & 1.21   & $\sim 0.3$   &  6-14\\
4U1543-47    &           & A2 V     & 0.22   & $\sim 2.5$   & 2.7-7.5\\
GRS1009-45   & N Vel 1993& K8 V$\pm2$ & 3.17   & $\sim 0.6$   & 4.4\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

Although no single model for high-energy emission from
pulsars has emerged, the observations with the present generation
of high-energy telescopes have channelled all models in certain
directions:
\begin{itemize}
  \item the particle acceleration by the strong electric fields
  takes place somewhere above the magnetic poles;
  \item the principal high-energy emission processes are
  synchrotron radiation, curvature radiation, and inverse Compton
  scattering, with thermal-emission secondary contributor;
  \item the high-energy pulsed emission is probably associated
  with a single magnetic pole of the neutron star.
\end{itemize}

\smallskip
\noindent Thompson (2000) pointed out several open questions about
spin-down pulsars:
\begin{itemize}
  \item Where in the magnetosphere are the particles accelerated?
  \item What is the shape of the beam?
  \item Are there many more radio-quiet pulsars to be found in
  X-rays and $\gamma$-rays?
  \item How do these recent discoveries affect our thinking about
  supernovae and neutron star formation?
\end{itemize}

\smallskip
\noindent These open questions can be solved by improving the
studies of the X-ray archives of the ROSAT, ASCA, BeppoSAX, and
RXTE, while AXAF-Chandra, and XMM-Newton will give significant
improvements in sensitivity and resolution. In the $\gamma$-ray
range, the study of the CGRO archives and the new data from the
INTEGRAL mission will help in filling some gaps in such a
low-energy $\gamma$-ray band. The next major step in high-energy
$\gamma$-rays will come with the GLAST experiment (e.g. Kamae, et
al., 2000).



\section{Conclusions}

In this paper I have discussed several of the most important
problems of astroparticle physics today and the hot questions
still open have been remarked.

\section{Acknowledgements}
This work was partially supported by the European Community. Many thanks
to Drs Black and White for useful discussions.

\begin{thebibliography}{9}

\bibitem{} {\bf We strongly recommend to insert in the text the references
with the name of the author and the date, like (Beall, 2002) or
following the results obtained by Baade \& Zwicky (1934) or, in
the case of three authors we suggest to write the three names
(Beall, Guillory \& Rose, 1999). For more than three authors
please use: following the paper by Atkins et al. (2000) we can
deduce..... or: the result of this measurement has been used for
obtaining a new model of the system (Bednarek et al., 1990).

We strongly recommend to write the references in this section in
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\end{thebibliography}

\bigskip
\bigskip
\noindent {\bf DISCUSSION}

\bigskip
\noindent {\bf MARIO MACRI:} Can you comment on the
contribution of Antimatter search in space experiments to the
understanding of cosmological evolution?

\bigskip
\noindent {\bf FRANCO GIOVANNELLI:} The detection of exotic cosmic
rays due to pair annihilation of dark matter particles in the
Milky Way halo is a viable techniques to search for supersymmetric
dark matter candidates. The study of the spectrum of gamma-rays,
antiprotons and positrons offers good possibilities to perform
this search in a significant portion of the Minimal Supersymmetric
Standard Model parameter space.
..............

\bigskip
\noindent {\bf JAMES WHITE's Comment:} I would like to remind
that..........


\end{document}
